Section 7 | History, Politics and International Relations | Session 4B, Panel
Chair: Harald Fuess (Sophia University)
Mikael S. Adolphson (Harvard University)
The sôhei, or monk-warriors, of Heian and Kamakura Japan fare poorly in comparison to the samurai, both in terms of historical reputation and representations in popular culture. Often maligned and criticized for their "unjust" involvement in politics and other secular matters, they have been understood as figures separate from the larger military class. Nothing seems to underscore this division more than the stereotypical image of the monk-warrior donning a black robe with a hood, and armed with swords and a naginata. However, an examination of the social origins of monk-commanders of the late Heian age, reveals a common ancestry and kinship with influential figures in the warrior class. Furthermore, the warfare strategies and weaponry of those who fought in the name of monasteries and shrines also suggests that the two were all but inseparable.
The denial of this common ancestry is in itself of great value to historians, since it reveals the cultural constructs that were selected, promoted and idealized. The beginning of this separation can be found in the ruling warrior class' efforts to distinguish itself and create a more unique identity in the fourteenth century. This process continued throughout the Tokugawa period, when the warrior class further solidified its status as rulers through class categorizations. In fact, even though Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi effectively subdued all temples in the late sixteenth century, the images of fierce and rebellious monk-warriors continued to be a popular motif in Tokugawa art and literature.
In the twentieth century, the critical attitude towards warring monks was sustained in academe, while samurai continued to be appreciated in their idealized form. While this is quite understandable in the political context of first half of the century, it is more surprising that these images have not been examined more in the post-war era. Images presented in TV dramas, video games, festivals, manga and anime, continue to promote the idealized image of the samurai while monk-warriors are still negatively perceived. These misguided images may at first appear to have little relevance to understanding contemporary Japan, but the need to glorify warriors including those who fought in the Pacific War, is rooted not only in modern nationalism, but also in a much older habit of idealizing the samurai.
Valdo Ferretti (Università degli Studi di Roma)
The final decade of the 20th century has been marked by a turn in the relationships between Japan and China. New features of national feelings in Japan, the economic growth of China after the Maoist era and Asiatic orientation in Japanese trade after the slump of the late 20th century, have contributed to this change. An additional factor, which should not be overlooked, however, is related to the arising multilateralism among the great powers after the Cold War and to the challenge it issues to the traditions of Japanese foreign policy. All that has led to reappraisals of past events, as if they might help to discover some aspects or elements in history, such as to anticipate the present or to bear about a better understanding of it.
The paper focuses on how the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-95, whose anniversary was in 1994, has met an evaluation from the Japanese public and from professional historians. The trace is pursued of the memory among Japanese people of that pivotal episode in Asian history, in connection to the present shift in both historical consciousness and in the perception of the international position of Japan.